Advantages
Efficiency
The administration of AAAs is quick (taking as little as 1 minute) and requires few resources. Items can be developed easily by teachers and taken right from the curriculum. Furthermore, AAAs require little training to administer or score. Also, because they are flexible and can be designed to assess specific domains of academics, AAAs allow school psychologists and other educators to test specific assessment questions rather than routinely test across a broad number of academic domains.
Use of Local Norms
Performances on AAA are often interpreted with reference to local normative data. Local norms are developed from samples of student behavior using AAA procedures. Local norms directly represent the school district population, academic goals, and outcomes rather than the performance of students nationwide. They also decrease the likelihood of bias in decision making because they are representative of student age, grade, race, educational background, and socioeconomic status.
Another advantage of local norms is that there is greater overlap between what is taught and what is tested. Districts have the flexibility to design comparative data based on the specific curriculum. This high teaching-testing overlap yields more meaningful data on student progress. CBM-R is the most common alternative academic assessment that is used to create local norms. In many districts, students complete CBM-Rs in the fall, winter, and spring.
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Benchmarking
Benchmarks are sometimes used to evaluate student performance with a criterion-referenced interpretation.
Both benchmarks and local norms are used as referents to evaluate whether students are making adequate progress to achieve expected long-term goals. For example, if students are expected to read 60 words correctly per minute in CBM-R by spring of first grade, then by winter, it is likely they should read 45 words correctly per minute. A student who scores significantly lower than the winter benchmark is identified as at-risk. The student is then given additional help so that by spring, he or she achieves the targeted level of performance. Benchmarking provides information that will help in determining which students are at risk and should be monitored more closely. To this end, benchmarking is also a vital component of prevention. It allows educators to identify and fix small problems before they become larger.
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Utility Within the Problem-Solving Model
Historically, students were placed in special education based on their scores on large norm-referenced tests (the "test and place" model). An intelligence score below a certain criterion resulted in a label such as "learning disabled." The student was then matched to special education services based on that label, and the problem was viewed as an inherent trait within the student. Beginning in 2001, a shift has occurred away from the traditional model and toward the problem-solving model.
The problem-solving model focuses not on traits of the student but on environmental and situational factors that can be modified to increase student outcomes. The problem-solving model follows these steps: identify the problem, measure the severity of problem, explore possible interventions, implement an intervention, and measure progress in hopes that the student can be successful in the general education setting. The problem-solving model is a circular process, as progress is constantly being monitored and interventions are adjusted accordingly. The problem-solving model does not rely on unproven inferences as does the traditional model. Hypotheses are continually tested and monitored with AAAs. Thus, decisions are evidence-based because student data are considered when creating and modifying interventions.
AAAs provide the necessary tools to implement the problem-solving model, as they efficiently assess student performance and can be repeated often. As the popularity of the problem-solving model increases, so does that of AAAs.
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Utility for Progress Monitoring
Alternative academic assessments not only identify students who are at-risk but also determine if intervention efforts are successful. Because they are efficient and drawn directly from the curriculum, AAAs can be used repeatedly to monitor student progress and response to intervention. Repeated measures provide not only the level of performance but also the student's rate of growth. This allows educators to determine if the student is making adequate improvement or not. If the intervention does not produce the desired rate of growth, then changes are made to the intervention.
Theodore James Christ and Sarah Scullin
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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