APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Applied behavior analysis is a methodology for systematically applying the principles of learning theory to develop interventions that will improve socially significant behaviors to a meaningful degree, as well as demonstrate that the interventions employed are responsible for the improvement in behavior. Applied behavior analysis has been repeatedly demonstrated to be a highly effective approach across a wide range of problems and environments, including education, mental health and mental retardation, parent training, environmental management, and organizational management. Applied behavior analysis is a specialty used by various professions. It is not regulated by most states, except as part of psychology or other established professions, although there have been a few attempts to recognize trained and qualified behavior analysts over the years. Most recently the nonprofit Behavior Analyst Certification Board has promoted a national certification program to identify and credential qualified practitioners and trainers.
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Principles and Techniques
Several terms besides applied behavior analysis have been used to describe intervention methods based on behavioral learning theories, including behavior modification, behavior therapy, and others. Although sometimes used interchangeably, there are possible distinctions made. Applied behavior analysis is used most often for the orientation that derives predominantly from Skinnerian operant conditioning and follows a radical behavioral philosophy. Although other behavioral orientations often utilize operant principles to differing degrees, they typically place a greater emphasis on classical conditioning processes (the neo-behavioristic mediational model) or cognitions and perceptions as targets for change (social learning theory and cognitive behavior modification) than does applied behavior analysis.
Operant conditioning eschews hypothetical mental constructs as explanatory contracts. Behaviors are viewed as being selected by environmental consequences, much like adaptive changes are in Darwinian evolution, rather than being emitted to serve some future purpose. That is, a child does not cry in order to attract attention but cries because crying has resulted in reinforcing consequences in similar situations in the past (unless, of course, the crying is in response to actual physical discomfort).
The central precept of applied behavior analysis is that behaviors are under the control of environmental stimuli. Functional relationships are described by a three-term contingency that consists of antecedents, responses (behaviors), and consequences. At times these are referred to as the ABCs of behavior. Early uses of behavior analysis focused primarily on changing behaviors through manipulating consequences. All consequences are seen as directly influencing whether behaviors will recur in the future. Conse-quences can be grouped into three main types: reinforcing, punishing, or neutral stimuli.
The first class of consequences, reinforcers, consists of events that increase the future probability of a behavior they immediately follow. These include events that strengthen behaviors when they are presented following the behavior, such as food, attention, or social praise. This operation is referred to as positive reinforcement. For example, a child may learn to apologize because the apology consistently is followed by parental praise. Behaviors also can be strengthened through the removal of an aversive (negative) stimulus following a behavior. This operation is termed negative reinforcement. This would be the case if a child learns to apologize if the apology terminates (or avoids) being scolded by his or her parents.
Reinforcers can either be biologically preestablished (primary reinforcers), such as food or water, or can acquire reinforcing properties through careful pairing with primary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers).
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Most reinforcers are differentially effective with different people rather than being universal. This is particularly true of conditioned reinforcers such as praise or tokens. The schedule of reinforcement used to deliver reinforcers also is important. Early in the process of strengthening a behavior, reinforcers are typically delivered on a continuous schedule, where a reinforcer is given each time the response occurs. Later in the process, various schedules are used that deliver reinforcers more intermittently and help increase resistance to extinction and/or produce specific types of responding patterns.
Punishment consists of two operations, but these weaken the likelihood of behaviors recurring. In positive punishment, the presentation of the consequence following the behavior results in weakening future occurrences of a behavior. An example might be a brief swat on the bottom when a young child chases a ball into the street. Removing a reinforcing stimulus contingent upon a behavior also can weaken it. This is negative punishment and includes, for example, taking away television-watching privileges for a short time to weaken a child's lying behavior. Applied behavior analysts typically advocate negative punishment as a more appropriate reductive method in most cases.
Behavior also may be decreased through the use of extinction, where the connection between a response and its maintaining consequences is discontinued, leading to a progressive decline in the rate of a previously reinforced response.
Antecedents, which are the front end of the three-term contingency, influence behaviors largely through a prior history of differential association with reinforcing or punishing consequences. When a child's behavior has been reinforced previously in a situation, the likelihood of that behavior is heightened under similar circumstances. It is lowered in situations in which reinforcement has been consistently withheld or punished. For example, a child whose father con-sistently buys him candy in a store when he whines is likely to exhibit similar behaviors in the future when shopping with his father. With his mother, who does not "give in," the child will learn not to whine.
Another type of antecedent stimulus used program-matically includes visual, verbal, or physical prompts given to increase the likelihood a child will respond appropriately to the given situation. For example, pictures of objects may be placed with letters to assist a child in learning letter sounds. These can then be removed either abruptly or through a gradual process called fading. Modeling can be seen as a special form of prompting in which someone demonstrates a desired behavior to increase its likelihood.
When a behavior is not present in the individual's repertoire, the procedure of shaping or successive approximations may be used. Shaping involves reinforcing progressively closer approximations of the desired behavior. For example, in teaching new words to a young child, the child is reinforced for vocalizations that are increasingly more like the desired word. As the sequence progresses, the word must be more and more like the target word for the child to receive reinforcement.
Particularly important behavioral concepts for instructional applications include discrimination, generalization, and concept formation. Behaviorally, concept formation occurs when the same response occurs to a group of discriminably different objects that have some aspect in common (as well as responding differently to other classes of stimuli). Concept formation involves both generalization and discrimination: generalization within classes and discrimination between classes. Thus, a child who responds "dog" to different examples of dog but not cats or other animals is exhibiting concept formation.
Many other effective techniques have evolved over time from this relatively small set of basic principles. In addition to those just mentioned, these include procedures such as overcorrection, token economies, time-out, response cost, self-monitoring, and task analysis.
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
Showing posts with label distance learning degree. Show all posts
Showing posts with label distance learning degree. Show all posts
Thursday, March 11, 2010
Friday, February 5, 2010
Online degree, part 22. Prevalence of Anxiety and Comorbid Conditions.
Prevalence rates of anxiety in community samples are difficult to estimate, especially given the fact that internalizing disorders, such as anxiety, are often difficult to observe and identify. Prevalence estimates for clinical levels of anxiety in children, young and middle-age adults, and older adults range from 5% to 19%, 6% to 8%, and 9% to 11%, respectively. In general, the prevalence of anxiety disorders has been found to increase with age in the child and adolescent population, decline during the young and middle-age adult years, and slightly increase in the older adult years. Gender differences have also been found in the literature. Specifically, females typically report more anxiety symptoms than do males. However, it remains unknown at the present time whether this gender difference is due to females actually experiencing more anxiety symptoms than males or whether females are simply better able to recognize and report their symptoms of anxiety than are males. On the other hand, overall, more females than males are believed to suffer from an anxiety disorder. However, the gender ratios differ based on the type of anxiety disorder diagnosed and the age of the individual. Despite this variability and the need for further research with regard to prevalence rates among different ages and genders, it is clear that anxiety continues to be a major problem for individuals of all ages and one that can potentially lead to significant difficulties within multiple domains of functioning.
Anxiety disorders have high rates of comorbidity with other disorders. The rate of comorbidity between anxiety and depressive disorders may be as high as 55% to 65%. Speculation as to why these rates are so high is that both anxiety and depression share a similar trait known as negative affectivity, or emotional distress. Negative affectivity includes such affective states as worry, self-dissatisfaction, and sadness. High comorbidity rates may also be due to a sequential link between anxiety and depression, with anxiety serving as an early precursor to a depressive disorder. Comorbidity rates are also high between different types of anxiety disorders. It is not uncommon for an individual who has one anxiety disorder to be diagnosed with another anxiety disorder. Other common comorbid conditions include substance use disorders and disruptive behavior disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder.
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From a trait model perspective, anxiety is viewed as a stable personality characteristic. Without treatment, anxiety disorders may persist. Approximately 45% to 65% of individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder do not show remission of symptoms. However, approximately 35% to 55% of individuals do show remission, but many who show remission develop other disorders, especially other anxiety disorders. Anxiety disorders interfere with the social and emotional well-being of individuals. If individuals are still in school, academic development may be impaired. For adults, work productivity may decline and unemployment may increase.
Developmental Precursors or Etiological Factors
Different theories exist about the development of an anxiety disorder. The three most popular models used to explain the development of an anxiety disorder are the biological, behavioral, and cognitive models. Biological explanations of anxiety focus on genetics, neurotransmitters, differences in structural regions of the brain, abnormalities in the immune system, and behavioral inhibition. Genetics is believed to play a role in the development of an anxiety disorder. Genetic influences account for approximately 30% to 35% of the variance in anxiety in most cases, suggesting that anxiety is moderately inheritable. The neuro-transmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) has received some attention as a possible risk factor in the-development of an anxiety disorder. GABA may increase excitatory responses to real or perceived threats, or it may fail to send messages to inhibit these responses. Perturbations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis indicate structural brain differences in individuals with an anxiety disorder. Behavioral inhibition may be another possible etiological factor. Behavioral inhibition characterizes a child's temperament. Children with this type of temperament are shy and exhibit inhibited behaviors in response to novel stimuli. These individuals are also highly physiologically reactive to such stimuli.
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Behavioral explanations for the development of an anxiety disorder focus on learned behaviors. According to behaviorists, anxiety is a learned behavior that is acquired and maintained through a combination of classical and operant conditioning, operant conditioning alone, or modeling. From a classical and operant conditioning perspective, anxiety problems result when a neutral stimulus, such as a large dog, is paired repeatedly with an aversive stimulus (i.e., an unconditioned stimulus), such as a loud noise, to produce an unconditioned response, such as a startled reaction. Through repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, and this conditioned stimulus will produce a conditioned response. In other words, the presence of a large dog will result in a startled response without the loud noise being present on a regular basis. The conditioned stimulus (i.e., a large dog) will then be avoided, and by avoiding the conditioned stimulus, an individual's anxiety is reduced. The avoidance behavior demonstrated by the individual in response to the large dog is an example of operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the stimulus, task, or situation feared is maintained by a negative reinforcement con-tingency. The feared stimulus, task, or situation is avoided, and the avoidant behavior is maintained because it reduces the individual's anxiety. In modeling, the individual observes the behavior of significant others in response to aversive stimuli, tasks, or situations. When significant others exhibit avoidance behavior and anxiety in response to aversive stimuli, the individual learns to model these behaviors. Exposure to similar aversive stimuli, tasks, or situations will produce similar behaviors.
The cognitive approach to anxiety disorders assumes that distorted cognitions are responsible for symptom manifestation. According to cognitive psychologists, individuals who have an anxiety disorder or experience high levels of anxiety exhibit threat-related attentional and interpretative biases. These individuals attend to threat-related stimuli, and they interpret ambiguous or neutral stimuli as threatening.
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
Anxiety disorders have high rates of comorbidity with other disorders. The rate of comorbidity between anxiety and depressive disorders may be as high as 55% to 65%. Speculation as to why these rates are so high is that both anxiety and depression share a similar trait known as negative affectivity, or emotional distress. Negative affectivity includes such affective states as worry, self-dissatisfaction, and sadness. High comorbidity rates may also be due to a sequential link between anxiety and depression, with anxiety serving as an early precursor to a depressive disorder. Comorbidity rates are also high between different types of anxiety disorders. It is not uncommon for an individual who has one anxiety disorder to be diagnosed with another anxiety disorder. Other common comorbid conditions include substance use disorders and disruptive behavior disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder.
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From a trait model perspective, anxiety is viewed as a stable personality characteristic. Without treatment, anxiety disorders may persist. Approximately 45% to 65% of individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder do not show remission of symptoms. However, approximately 35% to 55% of individuals do show remission, but many who show remission develop other disorders, especially other anxiety disorders. Anxiety disorders interfere with the social and emotional well-being of individuals. If individuals are still in school, academic development may be impaired. For adults, work productivity may decline and unemployment may increase.
Developmental Precursors or Etiological Factors
Different theories exist about the development of an anxiety disorder. The three most popular models used to explain the development of an anxiety disorder are the biological, behavioral, and cognitive models. Biological explanations of anxiety focus on genetics, neurotransmitters, differences in structural regions of the brain, abnormalities in the immune system, and behavioral inhibition. Genetics is believed to play a role in the development of an anxiety disorder. Genetic influences account for approximately 30% to 35% of the variance in anxiety in most cases, suggesting that anxiety is moderately inheritable. The neuro-transmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) has received some attention as a possible risk factor in the-development of an anxiety disorder. GABA may increase excitatory responses to real or perceived threats, or it may fail to send messages to inhibit these responses. Perturbations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis indicate structural brain differences in individuals with an anxiety disorder. Behavioral inhibition may be another possible etiological factor. Behavioral inhibition characterizes a child's temperament. Children with this type of temperament are shy and exhibit inhibited behaviors in response to novel stimuli. These individuals are also highly physiologically reactive to such stimuli.
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Behavioral explanations for the development of an anxiety disorder focus on learned behaviors. According to behaviorists, anxiety is a learned behavior that is acquired and maintained through a combination of classical and operant conditioning, operant conditioning alone, or modeling. From a classical and operant conditioning perspective, anxiety problems result when a neutral stimulus, such as a large dog, is paired repeatedly with an aversive stimulus (i.e., an unconditioned stimulus), such as a loud noise, to produce an unconditioned response, such as a startled reaction. Through repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, and this conditioned stimulus will produce a conditioned response. In other words, the presence of a large dog will result in a startled response without the loud noise being present on a regular basis. The conditioned stimulus (i.e., a large dog) will then be avoided, and by avoiding the conditioned stimulus, an individual's anxiety is reduced. The avoidance behavior demonstrated by the individual in response to the large dog is an example of operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the stimulus, task, or situation feared is maintained by a negative reinforcement con-tingency. The feared stimulus, task, or situation is avoided, and the avoidant behavior is maintained because it reduces the individual's anxiety. In modeling, the individual observes the behavior of significant others in response to aversive stimuli, tasks, or situations. When significant others exhibit avoidance behavior and anxiety in response to aversive stimuli, the individual learns to model these behaviors. Exposure to similar aversive stimuli, tasks, or situations will produce similar behaviors.
The cognitive approach to anxiety disorders assumes that distorted cognitions are responsible for symptom manifestation. According to cognitive psychologists, individuals who have an anxiety disorder or experience high levels of anxiety exhibit threat-related attentional and interpretative biases. These individuals attend to threat-related stimuli, and they interpret ambiguous or neutral stimuli as threatening.
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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