ALTERNATIVE ACADEMIC ASSESSMENT
Alternative academic assessment (AAA) is a class of procedures that are commonly used to assess student
Types Curriculum-Based Assessment
Most AAAs fall under the umbrella of CBA. The fundamental characteristics of CBA include that it (a) derives from, or is substantially similar to, the curriculum; (b) is linked to instruction; and (c) is used primarily to guide curriculum placement and instructional procedures. CBA procedures and instrumentation can be developed to assess skills within either a broad domain or a narrow domain.
CBA is divided into two subgroups: general outcome measures (GOMs) and subskill mastery measures (SMMs). GOMs are used to assess the level and rate of student achievement within a broad range of skills. GOMs are typically used to assess the achievement within the annual curriculum and instruction. A consistent set of procedures and instrumentation are used throughout the academic year. For example, mathematics computation in second grade might be assessed with tasks that span two-digit addition without carrying through four-digit subtraction with borrowing. The stimulus set and task demands are heterogeneous and representative of the annual curriculum. In contrast, SMMs are used to assess the level and rate of student achievement within a narrow range of skills and, usually, within a narrow range of time, which might be defined by an instructional unit. Procedures and instrumentation might change for each instructional unit so as to assess a specific and distinct set of skills that are aligned with the curriculum and instruction. For example, mathematics computation assessments might be narrowed to include only two-digit by two-digit subtraction without borrowing. The stimulus set and task demands are homogeneous and representative of the short-term instructional goal.
The variety of CBA procedures is broad. The following sections review a subset of available procedures. These include curriculum-based measurement, CBA for instructional design, criterion-referenced CBA, curriculum-based evaluation, and informal reading inventories. There are many other CBA procedures, which include end-of-chapter assessments that come along with curriculum materials. The selected procedures are a representative sample of those with the most prominence.
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Curriculum-Based Measurement
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a standardized assessment procedure that is used to index the level and rate of academic growth in four basic skills: reading, mathematics, written expression, and spelling. CBM is generally classified as a GOM because it is used to assess student achievement within the annual curriculum. It is defined as stan-dardized procedure and not as a standardized test. This distinction is necessary because the instrumentation is not standard across applications.
CBM was developed by Stanley Deno and col-leagues in the late 1970s through the mid-1980s. More than 200 research studies of CBM are published in peer-refereed journals, and technical development continues through the present day. CBM oral reading fluency (CBM-R) is the most prominent of the available procedures. In CBM-R, the student reads aloud for one minute as the administrator (usually the teacher) follows along on another copy of the passage. The administrator notes errors made and tallies up the number of words read correctly. This yields the student's reading rate, which is reported in units of words read correctly per minute. Error rates and accuracy are also reported sometimes.
CBM was designed to serve as an "academic thermometer" to monitor students' growth in four basic skill domains. The procedures are sometimes described as "dynamic indicators of basic skills." CBM is dynamic in that assessment outcomes are useful to evaluate the effects of instruction over the short term. Outcomes are useful to guide either summative or formative decisions. Summative decisions require one-time evaluations of the level of academic achievement. Formative decisions require ongoing evaluations of the level and rate of academic achievement, which are usually evaluated to estimate the effects of instruction. CBM is an indicator in that it provides a general assessment of academic health within each domain. That is, although CBM-R yields outcomes in words read correctly per minute, that level of oral reading fluency is useful to estimate the general reading achievement and predict performance on large-scale assessments (e.g., statewide tests). CBM targets basic skills in that there are procedures in each of the four fundamental basic skill domains (reading, writing, math, and spelling).
Formative assessment can inform intervention and determine the effectiveness of an intervention. Here is an example: Nick, a second-grade student was referred to the school psychologist for low CBM scores in reading. Nick reads 30 words correctly per minute, compared to the expected 60 words per minute by second grade. The school psychologist or teacher implements an intervention of paired reading for half an hour a day. The following week, Nick completes another CBM at 35 words per minute. Now the discrepancy between Nick's score and the expected score has decreased, signifying that Nick is responding to the intervention. If the discrepancy continues to decrease, Nick will continue with paired reading until he reads at the expected second-grade level. Should the discrepancy remain the same or increase, the intervention will be modified until the desired level of growth is achieved.
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CBA for Instructional Design
CBA for instructional design (CBA-ID) was developed to match the student to the appropriate instructional and curriculum level and focuses on individualizing instruction to ensure mastery learning of all students. A good instructional match maximizes student learning and engagement by fitting the student's needs. Research has found that students are most successful when they are able to respond correctly to material 93% to 97% of the time. This is called the instructional level. CBA-ID starts by finding the student's instructional level and then tests for areas of skill deficits.
CBA-ID has four steps. The first is to choose an appropriate passage for the student to read and test for the student's instructional level by asking them to read 20 to 30 randomly chosen words from the passage. If the student gets five or fewer words wrong, then he or she moves on to the next step. If more than five errors are made, then the student is retested in a passage at a lower level. The second step requires the student to read the passage. As the student reads, the examiner records the student's errors. Afterward, the student is asked questions about the passage to assess how well the student comprehends what he or she read. The last two steps of CBA-ID are to use the assessment information to match the student to appropriate reading instruction and curriculum. Progress monitoring continues as the student is instructed and necessary changes are made.
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Criterion-Referenced CBA
Criterion-referenced CBA (CR-CBA) is similar to CBA-ID in that it was developed to determine appropriate instructional materials and strategies. The methods differ, however, in that CBA-CR determines an acceptable level of performance by comparing student scores to a locally normed sample of average peers. Students are tested on items from the curriculum in order of easy to difficult within a reading series. The teacher or examiner constructs reading tests by using 100-word passages from the beginning, middle, and end of the reading series. Students are tested across 3 days on nine passages; three from the beginning, middle, and end each. As the student reads, the examiner records student errors and then calculates the student's accuracy level (percentage of words read correctly across the entire 100-word passage) and rate of reading (the product of accuracy and 60 divided by total seconds it took the student to read the passage). Next, the student is asked six comprehension questions. Finally, the median scores for the 3 days of assessment are summarized. Assessment decisions are made based on the student's performance compared to the mastery criteria.
Curriculum-Based Evaluation
Curriculum-based evaluation (CBE) is used to determine the student's general whereabouts in the curriculum to identify specific areas of skill deficit. Administration begins with survey level assessment to identify if the student's performance meets expected goals. The initial survey level assessment is developed by sampling a broad domain from the curriculum. In the case of reading, for example, broad skills such as decoding and comprehension are tested. If the results show that the student has a deficit, a skill-specific criterion-referenced test is administered. This second test focuses on specific skills such as segmenting words, rhyming, intonation, and other reading-related sub-skills. Results are used to adapt instruction to the student's needs.
Informal Reading Inventories
Informal reading inventories (IRIs) are similar to CBE in that they identify specific subskill deficits. There is much variance among the increasing number of published IRIs; however, most follow a typical assessment method. First, the student is asked to read from a graded word list. Depending on the student's accuracy, he or she moves up or down a grade level in word lists until the student's instructional level is found. The definition of this level varies among IRIs but usually falls around 90% words read correctly. Second, the student reads a passage from his or her instructional level. As the student reads, the examiner records the student's errors, or miscues. This yields the student's accuracy and reading rate. Next, the miscues are grouped into categories like omissions, substitutions, low fluency words, and repetitions. Attention is also paid to the types of words that are miscued. This allows the examiner to identify specific areas of weakness. For example, a student may struggle with words with a silent e. IRIs determine not only which level of curriculum to place students in but also specific areas of weakness.
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
Showing posts with label Online Degree. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Online Degree. Show all posts
Saturday, September 26, 2009
Saturday, September 5, 2009
Online degree, part 5.
Types of Academic Acceleration
Grade skipping is but one example of academic acceleration. In practice, the range and types of academic acceleration also include early entrance to school, continuous progression, self-paced instruction, correspondence courses, combined classes, multiage classes, curriculum compacting, curriculum telescoping, extracurricular programs, mentorships, content acceleration, subject acceleration, credit by examination, concurrent enrollment, advanced placement (an American practice with few equivalents elsewhere), early access to advanced-level studies while still at school, and early entrance to university.
Academic acceleration, therefore, refers to any of the ways by which a gifted student engages in the study of new material that is typically taught at a higher grade level than the one in which the child is currently enrolled, covers more material in a shorter time, and accordingly is seen to be vertical provision for gifted students. Implicit is the assumption that gifted students, who perform, or reflect the potential to perform, at advanced skill levels should be studying new material at levels commensurate with their levels of ability. Because a common characteristic of gifted students is their ability to learn at a fast rate, acceleration is seen to be a fundamental need of a gifted student and, in some form, should be an integral part of every gifted program.
A model for academic acceleration may refer to service delivery, whereby a standard curriculum experience is offered to a gifted student at a younger age or earlier grade than usual. Or it may refer to curriculum delivery, which involves increasing the pace of presentation of material, either in the regular classroom or in special classes. In either case, programs for academic acceleration allow the examination of content in greater depth, give access to subject matter at levels of greater conceptual difficulty, and should provide instruction that individually and explicitly matches the achievement levels, ability, interests, and learning style of the gifted student.
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Benefits of Acceleration
Academic acceleration has several administrative benefits. It is a readily available and inexpensive educational option. It is a way of giving recognition for a student's advanced abilities and accomplishments. It increases learning efficiency, learning effectiveness, and productivity; it gives a student more choice for academic exploration; and it may give increased time for a career.
The report A Nation Deceived presents an excellent summary of recent research supporting the academic and affective benefits of well-administered acceleration. From this research come four important findings that are strong and clear and unequivocal.
First, acceleration is consistently and highly effective for academic achievement. No studies have shown that enrichment programs or provisions give more benefits to gifted students than methods of acceleration. Academic benefits do arise from ability grouping accompanied by a differentiated curriculum, but the greatest benefit comes from academic acceleration. That is, accelerated gifted students, regardless of which form of acceleration is used, significantly outperform students of similar intellectual ability who have not been accelerated.
Second, there is no research to support the claim of maladjustment from acceleration. Despite the preponderance of evidence in favor of academic acceleration, concern about the social and emotional adjustment of accelerated students persists. This concern is cited by both teachers and administrators as the primary reason for opposition to academic acceleration. However, research finds no evidence to support the notion that social and emotional problems arise through well-run and carefully monitored acceleration programs.
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Third, acceleration is usually effective in terms of affective adjustment. For many students, it removes them from difficult social situations and from unchal-lenging and inappropriate educational contexts. It exposes the student to a new peer group and, in fact, significantly increases the chances of a gifted student forming close and productive social relationships with other students. That is, academic acceleration goes a long way to meeting the social and emotional needs of the gifted student who uses it.
Fourth, a gifted student who is not accelerated when it is appropriate may well experience educational frustration and boredom; have reduced motivation to learn; develop poor study habits; have lower academic expectations, achievement, and productivity; express apathy toward formal schooling; drop out prematurely (there is at least some anecdotal evidence to support this); and/or find it difficult to adjust to peers who do not share advanced interests and concerns. That is, rather than expressing concern over potential socioemotional maladjustment arising from acceleration, teachers and administrators need to be concerned about the probability of maladjustment effects resulting from inadequate intellectual challenge.
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
Grade skipping is but one example of academic acceleration. In practice, the range and types of academic acceleration also include early entrance to school, continuous progression, self-paced instruction, correspondence courses, combined classes, multiage classes, curriculum compacting, curriculum telescoping, extracurricular programs, mentorships, content acceleration, subject acceleration, credit by examination, concurrent enrollment, advanced placement (an American practice with few equivalents elsewhere), early access to advanced-level studies while still at school, and early entrance to university.
Academic acceleration, therefore, refers to any of the ways by which a gifted student engages in the study of new material that is typically taught at a higher grade level than the one in which the child is currently enrolled, covers more material in a shorter time, and accordingly is seen to be vertical provision for gifted students. Implicit is the assumption that gifted students, who perform, or reflect the potential to perform, at advanced skill levels should be studying new material at levels commensurate with their levels of ability. Because a common characteristic of gifted students is their ability to learn at a fast rate, acceleration is seen to be a fundamental need of a gifted student and, in some form, should be an integral part of every gifted program.
A model for academic acceleration may refer to service delivery, whereby a standard curriculum experience is offered to a gifted student at a younger age or earlier grade than usual. Or it may refer to curriculum delivery, which involves increasing the pace of presentation of material, either in the regular classroom or in special classes. In either case, programs for academic acceleration allow the examination of content in greater depth, give access to subject matter at levels of greater conceptual difficulty, and should provide instruction that individually and explicitly matches the achievement levels, ability, interests, and learning style of the gifted student.
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Benefits of Acceleration
Academic acceleration has several administrative benefits. It is a readily available and inexpensive educational option. It is a way of giving recognition for a student's advanced abilities and accomplishments. It increases learning efficiency, learning effectiveness, and productivity; it gives a student more choice for academic exploration; and it may give increased time for a career.
The report A Nation Deceived presents an excellent summary of recent research supporting the academic and affective benefits of well-administered acceleration. From this research come four important findings that are strong and clear and unequivocal.
First, acceleration is consistently and highly effective for academic achievement. No studies have shown that enrichment programs or provisions give more benefits to gifted students than methods of acceleration. Academic benefits do arise from ability grouping accompanied by a differentiated curriculum, but the greatest benefit comes from academic acceleration. That is, accelerated gifted students, regardless of which form of acceleration is used, significantly outperform students of similar intellectual ability who have not been accelerated.
Second, there is no research to support the claim of maladjustment from acceleration. Despite the preponderance of evidence in favor of academic acceleration, concern about the social and emotional adjustment of accelerated students persists. This concern is cited by both teachers and administrators as the primary reason for opposition to academic acceleration. However, research finds no evidence to support the notion that social and emotional problems arise through well-run and carefully monitored acceleration programs.
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Third, acceleration is usually effective in terms of affective adjustment. For many students, it removes them from difficult social situations and from unchal-lenging and inappropriate educational contexts. It exposes the student to a new peer group and, in fact, significantly increases the chances of a gifted student forming close and productive social relationships with other students. That is, academic acceleration goes a long way to meeting the social and emotional needs of the gifted student who uses it.
Fourth, a gifted student who is not accelerated when it is appropriate may well experience educational frustration and boredom; have reduced motivation to learn; develop poor study habits; have lower academic expectations, achievement, and productivity; express apathy toward formal schooling; drop out prematurely (there is at least some anecdotal evidence to support this); and/or find it difficult to adjust to peers who do not share advanced interests and concerns. That is, rather than expressing concern over potential socioemotional maladjustment arising from acceleration, teachers and administrators need to be concerned about the probability of maladjustment effects resulting from inadequate intellectual challenge.
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
Monday, August 31, 2009
How To Get Online Degree - Education Online
Online education is now very popular. Let's find out how educational psychology can help you in receiving online colledge degrees. Just read all our posts in this blog and you can easely start your online education.
Educational psychology is a special field of endeavor because it strives to apply what is known about many different disciplines to the broad process of education. In the most general terms, you can expect to find topics in this area that fall into the categories of human learning and development (across the life span), motivation, measurement and statistics, and curriculum and teaching. More specifically, the educational psychologist studies such topics as aggression, the relationship between poverty and achievement in schools, lifelong learning, quantitative methods, and emerging adulthood. Online education is truly a diverse and fascinating field of study and unlike other social and behavioral sciences. Its significance for application to the real needs of both children and adults cannot be overestimated.
Learn how to receive online degree easely
The importance of all these topics is not limited to the college classroom or academic lecture circuit. Rather, the ability to understand complex issues such as vouchers, early intervention, inclusion, cultural diversity, and the role of athletics in the schools (to mention only a few examples) carries important implications for public policy decisions. The encyclopedia includes some technical topics related to educational psychology, but for the most part, it focuses on those topics that evoke the interest of the everyday reader.
Online Accredited Degrees easy
Although there are hundreds of books about different topics in education and online degrees and there are thousands of university and private researchers pursuing more information about these topics, most of the available information tends to be found in scholarly books and scholarly journal articles—usually out of the reach of the everyday person. In fact, there are few comprehensive overviews of the field of online education, and the purpose of this multivolume Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology is to share this information in a way that is, above all, informative without being overly technical or intimidating.
Get Online Bachelor Degree
Through more than 275 contributions, experts provide overviews and explanations of the major topics in the field of educational psychology.
How were these topics selected to be included in this encyclopedia? The underlying rationale for topic selection and presentation comes from the need to share subjects that are rich, diverse, and deserving of closer inspection with an educated reader who may be uninformed about educational psychology. Within these pages, the contributors and I provide the overview and the detail that we feel is necessary to become well acquainted with topics that fairly represent the entire field.
Online College Degree - Right Now!
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
Educational psychology is a special field of endeavor because it strives to apply what is known about many different disciplines to the broad process of education. In the most general terms, you can expect to find topics in this area that fall into the categories of human learning and development (across the life span), motivation, measurement and statistics, and curriculum and teaching. More specifically, the educational psychologist studies such topics as aggression, the relationship between poverty and achievement in schools, lifelong learning, quantitative methods, and emerging adulthood. Online education is truly a diverse and fascinating field of study and unlike other social and behavioral sciences. Its significance for application to the real needs of both children and adults cannot be overestimated.
Learn how to receive online degree easely
The importance of all these topics is not limited to the college classroom or academic lecture circuit. Rather, the ability to understand complex issues such as vouchers, early intervention, inclusion, cultural diversity, and the role of athletics in the schools (to mention only a few examples) carries important implications for public policy decisions. The encyclopedia includes some technical topics related to educational psychology, but for the most part, it focuses on those topics that evoke the interest of the everyday reader.
Online Accredited Degrees easy
Although there are hundreds of books about different topics in education and online degrees and there are thousands of university and private researchers pursuing more information about these topics, most of the available information tends to be found in scholarly books and scholarly journal articles—usually out of the reach of the everyday person. In fact, there are few comprehensive overviews of the field of online education, and the purpose of this multivolume Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology is to share this information in a way that is, above all, informative without being overly technical or intimidating.
Get Online Bachelor Degree
Through more than 275 contributions, experts provide overviews and explanations of the major topics in the field of educational psychology.
How were these topics selected to be included in this encyclopedia? The underlying rationale for topic selection and presentation comes from the need to share subjects that are rich, diverse, and deserving of closer inspection with an educated reader who may be uninformed about educational psychology. Within these pages, the contributors and I provide the overview and the detail that we feel is necessary to become well acquainted with topics that fairly represent the entire field.
Online College Degree - Right Now!
EDITOR Neil J. Salkind
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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